Over Representation of African American Students in the Special Education System. Essay

Introduction My current school has special education roster of 32 students in self contain with over 90% of the students being African-American. This paper will address the large number African-American students in the special education system. Attention will be focus on the social economic roles that play a part in placement. When done properly and in appropriate perspective, special education is beneficial for students with a real disability, but special education services are inappropriate when a student receives it when it is not needed. African-American students are being placed in the special education system at an alarming rate. They are being labeled with disabilities at ages as early as five years old, because they progress slower than the rest of the class, bias in assessment instrument, discrimination in society reflected in the school or they may present some behavior issue. Special education is appropriate placement for students with real disabilities, but minority blacks are being disproportionately place in special education. This unjust placement at early ages are causing these children to be stereotyped as slow learners causing low self esteem and low achievement rate during and after school. This is a major problem when addressing special education for African Americans. Many attempts have been made to solve the issues but there have been no satisfactory results. Theoretical Framework The disproportionate representation of African-Americans students in the special education system is well documented. This misrepresentation has been problematic since the inception of the special education program. This paper will probe the reasons many of these students have been categorized with various type of learning disabilities or emotional disturbances. These labels given to students have proven to be life altering to students given incorrect placement. Lawsuits have been filed charging that placements of high numbers of African American, especially male, in special education classes has been a tool for resisting court ordered desegregation (Harry and Anderson, 1992). In many instances there is a lack of or unwillingness to properly place African American students because of educators in some systems being culturally diverse. Secondly there is a lot of mistrust between educators and parents. Many parents don’t seek appropriate services or disagree with educational placement because they feel they will be see as ignorant or â€Å"talked down† to by teachers and administrators placing their children in special education. This paper will also discuss the long term effects that hinder students educational progress as well as there adult life. Once placed in many special education programs student may not be in line to receive a high school diploma. Many students have difficulties in the community getting jobs because employers feel they will be slower then there counterparts that received a regular education. This then snowballs into the child being placed in a lower social economic bracket because of the type of employment they will have to settle for in adulthood. African-American students are disproportionally placed in the special education system around the country. This misrepresentation is may be due to teacher ineffectiveness. Improving teachers’ capacity to provide culturally responsive instruction to African American students is like to improve student learning ability (Darling-Hammond, 2004). New teachers must meet a vigorous undergraduate program to become certified they continue to graduate enable to effectively teach African American students. Many exit program with a misconception of black students. They think that the African American students are not as smart as other races. The purpose of this study is to prove there is a misrepresentation of African American students in special education. I also plan to illustrate the problem of disproportionate representation of African American students in special education is not just a special education problem issue or concern but, instead, must be viewed in the context as it refers to racism in the whole educational system. I will discuss how racism contributes to and maintains disproportionality in special education by (a) insufficiently funding schools attended primarily by African American and poor children: (b) employing culturally inappropriate and unresponsive curriculum; (c) inadequately preparing educators to effectively teach African American learners and other students of color. I will show that to effectively address the problem of disproportionality, researchers, practitioners and  policymakers must place inequitable educational resource allocation, inappropriate curriculum and pedagogy and inadequate teacher preparation at the center of education research, policy, and practice. Significance of the Study There is much significance for this study. Being a special education teacher I have seen many students come to me because they were a behavioral problem during their elementary years. I believe it is our responsibility to find a solution to this growing problem. First, we as educators, we need to find out if this race of students are get misplaced in the educational system. These students not getting a proper education are causing a negative effect on their entire life. This causes this particular group to have to depend on state aid and weakens the workforce. Secondly, we need to find out if there is a problem with teacher preparedness. If this is a problem we need to figure out what can be done in state colleges and universities to solve these problems. Would adding a more ethically diverse curriculum better prepare teachers to educate African American students? The majority of the teachers coming out of college will be spending there first few years teaching intercity kids, with the majority being African Americans. Finally we need to educate or children to be reliable productive citizens. I feel that these children are not being given an equal shot at being productive if they are being thrown in the special education class in the back of the building. We already know there is a problem, now we need to work together to find a solution that will best benefit the students. Definition of Terms Disproportionate numbers: Having greater representation within a subgroup  compared to the number of students in the population as a whole. Some researchers use plus or minus 10% to determine proportionality (Harry & Anderson, 1994). Discrimination The ability to make or perceive distinction; discernment. Partiality, or bias, in the treatment of a person or group, which is unfair, illegal, etc(Loren & Orfield, 2002). It is my opinion that African American children are being placed in special Education because of biases unfair grouping. High Achieving: School-wide trajectory of API (if in California) and Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) growth over three years of all subgroups. There must also be a minimum movement of two deciles within 3-5 years. ] Special Education: Services and supports designed to minimize the impact of disability and maximize opportunity to grow and learn (Hehir, 2007). Limitation, Delimitation and Assumptions Limitations of Study The limitations of this study would be to find willing participates, because of the reasons I have discussed earlier parents will be willing to admit that their child was placed in special education because of a lack of knowledge on their part. Another limitation that will affect them outcome of this research is because I am directly employed in the parish that I have chosen to do research. This position will limit the effectiveness of my research because of student privacy and my position in the parish. It is also my opinion that school districts will not want to release information that could possible be used against them. As stated before I think students of color or being illegal classified as students with special needs and placed in special education. These are a few factors that could limit my study. Delimitations of the Study  External validity may be effected based on the number of student/parents being interviewed. Validate may be effected due to other minority races not being included in the study. Also the size and school locations may limit my ability to get adequate data to fully prove my hypothesis. The small sample population was feasible for my research rather then venturing out into larger areas. This is significant in that the findings may not be applicable to other schools. Assumptions of the Study References Artiles, A. J. (2003). Special education’s changing identity: Paradoxes and dilemmas in views of culture and space. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 164-202. Artiles, A. J. , Rueda, R. , Salazar, J. J. , & Higareda, I. (2005). Within-group diversity in minority disproportionate representation: English language learners in urban school districts. Exceptional Children, 71, 283-300. Billingsley, B. (2004). Special education teachers’ retention and attrition: A critical analysis of the research literature. Remedial and Special Education, 25, 22-39. Blair, C. , & Scott, K. G. (2002). Proportion of LD placements associated with low socio-economic status: Evidence for gradient. Journal of Special Education, 36, 14-22. Blanchett, W. J. , Mumford, V. , & Beachum, F. (2005). Urban school failure and disproportionality in a post-Brown era. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 70-81. Chamberlain, S. P. (2005). Issues of overrepresentation and educational equity for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 110-113. Countinho, M. J. , Oswald, D. P. , & Best, A. M. (2002). The influence of sociodemographics and gender on the disproportionate identification of minority students as having learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 49-59. Coutinho, M. J. , Oswald, D. P. , Best, A. M. , & Forness, S. R. (2002). Gender and sociodemographic factors and the disproportionate identification of culturally and linguistically diverse students with emotional disturbance. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 109-125. Eitle, T. M. (2002). Special education or racial segregation: Understanding variation in the representation of Black students in educable mentally handicapped programs. The Sociological Quarterly, 43(4), 575-605. Elhoweris, H. , Mutua, K. , Alsheikh, N. , & Holloway, P.(2005). Effect of children’s ethnicity on teachers’ referral and recommendation decisions in gifted and talented programs. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 25-31. Ferri, B. A. , & Connor, D. J. (2005). In the shadow of Brown: Special education and overrepresentation of students of color. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 93-100. Hosp, J. L. , & Hosp, M. K. (2002). Behavior differences between African American and Caucasian students: Issues for assessment and intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 336-350. Hosp, J. L. , & Reschly, D. J. (2002). Predictors of restrictiveness of placement of African American and Caucasian students. Exceptional Children, 14, 20-34. Hosp, J. L. , & Reschly, D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention and assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education, 37, 67-81. Hosp, J. L. , & Reschly, D. J. (2004). Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Academic, demographic and economic predictors. Exceptional Children, 70, 185-199. Kurlaender, M. , & Yun, J. T. (2007). Measuring school racial composition and student outcomes in a multiracial society. American Journal of Education, 113, 213-235. Neal, L. V. , McCray, A. D. , Webb-Johnson, G. , & Bridgest, S. T. (2003). The effects of African American movement styles on teachers’ perceptions and reactions. Journal of Special Education, 37, 49-57. O’Connor, C. (2002). Black women beating the odds from one generation to the next: How the changing dynamics of constraint and opportunity affect the process of educational resilience. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 855-903. Park, J. , Turnball, A. P. , & Turnball, H. R. , III (2002). Impacts of poverty on quality of life in families of children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68, 151-170. Shealey, M. W. , Lue, M. S. , Brooks, M. , & McCray, E. (2005). Examining the legacy of Brown: The impact on special education and teacher practice. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 113-121. Skiba, R. J. , Michael, R. S. , Nardo, A. C. , & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban Review, 34, 317-342. Skiba, R. J. , Poloni-Staudinger, L. , Gallini, S. , Simmons, A.B. , & Feggins-Azziz, R. (2006). Disparate access: The disproportionality of African American students with disabilities across educational environments. Exceptional Children, 72, 411-424. Skiba, R. J. , Poloni-Staudinger, L. , Simmons, A. B. , Feggins-Azziz, L. R. , & Chung, C. G. (2005). Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education? Journal of Special Education, 39, 130-144. Zhang, D. , & Katsiyannis, A. (2002). Minority representation in special education: A persistent challenge. Remedial and Special Education, 21, 180-187.

Common Theories Of Entrepreneurship Proposed Commerce Essay

It was non entrepreneurial history but the history that contained enterprisers. The term foremost appeared in the Hagiographas of Richard Cantillon in 1755 who used the term to depict â€Å" person who exercises concern judgement in the face of uncertainness † . John Sawyer argued entrepreneurship â€Å" as the strictly advanced to the strictly everyday † non merely in the concern but in other organisations where â€Å" important determinations affecting alteration are made impacting the combinations and committedness of resources under conditions of uncertainness â€Å" . Some common theories of entrepreneurship proposed enterprisers provided the indispensable drive force that powered capitalist economic growing, others proposed it as a signifier of art more than its economic activity and as such hard as any other artistic activity to explicate in footings of beginning, method or environmental influence. Since so many different significances had been assigned some writers wondered whether bookmans should non fling the term â€Å" enterpriser â€Å" . Entrepreneurship non merely touches upon history and economic sciences, but besides countries such as sociology, anthropology, psychological science and many more, some common premises were enterprisers were merely successful bourgeois, his success was proof plenty of his abilities, his motives were obvious: stuff prosperity, public acknowledgment and regard, the public assistance of the society and there were some who related the single concern executive to the direction of the house. But as more energy was spent on this widely characterized term many inquiries like how does an enterpriser gets in to concern or what kind of people tend to be attracted towards the entrepreneurial function come up, the fact was that in covering with enterprisers we were covering with human existences non spaces or interchangeable economic units. Despite the potency for profusion and texture that such a diverse mix of subjects brings a major failing was research workers from one field have tended to disregard the entrepreneurship surveies by research workers in other subject. ( Wortman 1992 )[ 1 ] No by and large accepted theory of entrepreneurship has emerged so far but on the other side with such diverse positions each can assist us to understand assorted facets of entrepreneurship, yet definitions remain of import because they make farther research manageable. This supposed deficiency of articulate theory turned out to be one of the first issues seized by economic experts when they invaded in to the history of economic science. Since the term has been used for more than a century in the Fieldss of commercialism, media and by ordinary people in conversation so it is improbable an wholly new definition would be acceptable.Entrepreneurshipâ€Å" Entrepreneurship is a journey of test and mistake, there is no cutoff to success † Richard A Bendis CEO Innovation Philadelphia The term entrepreneurship and enterpriser are used interchangeably. Entrepreneur ever precedes entrepreneurship. The procedure of development and co-ordination of maps of enterpriser is termed as entrepreneurship. Webster Third New International Dictionary ( 1961 )[ 2 ]defines the enterpriser as â€Å" an organiser of an economic venture, particularly one who organizes, owns, manages and assumes the hazard of a concern and Wagnalls standard Dictionary[ 3 ]( 1958 ) offers â€Å" One who undertakes to get down and carry on an endeavor or concern, presuming full control and hazard † . The enterpriser is non defined by the formal rank or rubric but retrospectively after successful pattern of invention. A originative individual in the literary, artistic or dramatic sense is non needfully an enterpriser but the 1 who recognizes the value of his thoughts and exploits them otherwise than the remainder. Some primary requirements for the entrepreneurial clime[ 4 ]: Freedom to set an thought in to consequence if the resources can be procured, capable merely to the Torahs of orderly society. Freedom to bask the fruits of success or the penalty of failure. Freedom from interjection by the authorities of its autonomous power to promote an endeavor. Entrepreneurship creates extra entrepreneurial activities, like the induction of computing machines opened up a huge computing machine package market. A concern of any sort generates the demand for 1000s of new concerns impacting growing of society. Entrepreneurship makes an of import part to the economic development by supplying a platform for the pool of cognition that otherwise would hold remained trapped. The kernel of entrepreneurship is the induction of alteration and one time this alteration is initiated direction takes charge of the production and distribution. Like developing a human intelligent computing machine requires an advanced alteration affecting entrepreneurship but one time the production begins, the direction takes over and organizes a model for its go oning production. The enterpriser is the alteration agent, the beginning of invention but still it remains a partially charted universe and can non be to the full defined.Entrepreneur as an Innovator and strategianEntrepreneurship is a originative force, person who can believe otherwise and make new chances. Society ‘s primary involvement in entrepreneurship seems making new possibilities that improve our economic life. Entrepreneur is considered as a beginning of alteration in society and the economic system. Strategic regulations of behavior are based on thoughts to hold a competitory border within a set of market constructions, hence undertaking is optimising within given boundaries conducted through thorough analysis by mechanistic system and model to back up a brimming thought. Gartner ( 1988 )[ 5 ]suggests that â€Å" entrepreneurship is to make with making new concern ventures, irrespective of whether they are high growing oriented or non.The focal point is upon looking at the procedure of making the organisation instead than on the single individual † . The activity of entrepreneurship is about taking hazard at the same clip enterprise in chase of net income, the basic trial for an enterpriser would be whether his thought will function its full intent and if he is able to do money ( net income ) out of it. A good refined enterpriser is really careful to cipher the hazard they take, they possess both originative and direction accomplishments and these accomplishments differentiate them from discoverers, directors and authorities decision makers. Schumpter[ 6 ]in 1995 argued that the inventions made by the enterprisers are the strategic factors in economic development and a conducive factor in trade. He made a clear and strong differentiation between innovation and invention. Invention is an act of making an thought or vision whereas Innovation is doing usage of innovation to do new things or to do things otherwise. Invention is associated with research, development, presentation and commercialisation. Innovation is a important factor for run intoing the altering demands of the society. It is about making something different from the herd and in making so analysing both production and market invention. In a free environment there is a leaning for detecting chances and therefore spread outing them to profitable ventures. The being of a association football field does non warrants soccer games in the same manner being of favourable conditions will non itself create entrepreneurial activity. Fritz Machlup[ 7 ]depict this state of affairs as â€Å" the birthrate of freedom † .Illustration:The successful international concatenation Body Shop international started out in 1970 as a individual store in a little Southern English town merchandising cosmetics and related merchandises based on natural ingredients. Anita Roddick the laminitis had an thought which see implemented with a individual store in the beginning and subsequently with her concern experience, development and commercialisation it grew internationally. Post Second World War there has been burgeoning growing in the activities affecting Science and Technology. Yet within the past few old ages at that place has been important paradigm displacement from procedure of making new scientific and technological progresss towards greater accent on effectual use of finds and development.The difference between innovation and invention has been attributed to the function of pioneer who is responsible for interlingual rendition of scientific discipline and engineering in to common twenty-four hours usage.[ 8 ] Invention can be farther categorized as evolutionary and radical inventions. Generally inventions happening within a house, doing a steady house with accommodation to little alterations is referred to as evolutionary alterations. Evolutionary invention progress over clip, leting houses to follow improved methods and remain competitory. They occur frequently and are a procedure of alteration in virtually all major industries. Fuel efficient transmittals, electronic ignition in the car industry are illustrations of evolutionary alterations. On the other manus Revolutionary inventions are non portion of the normal procedure and are a beginning of major alteration within a organisation. These inventions create new industries, have major turbulences within the bing industry and do some industries obsolete taking them to extent of failure. Most common illustration of radical invention is the development and realignment of computing machines ; rise of automotive industry is besides an radical invention. Bridging of these two inventions is of import for houses to remain competitory as the coming of the two creates major turbulences across many industries, if houses are accommodating to alterations through evolutionary alteration it thereby opens a huge chance of radical inventions doing current methodological analysis obsolete.Entrepreneurship and Economic DevelopmentSocieties differ in their capacity to accomplish economic growing. Small over two centuries ago there was small difference in the economic well-being of the bulk of the World ‘s population but as the passage towards industrial revolution was made the economic growing rate began to increase. Significantly the degree of per capita income and the criterion of life improved. Entrepreneurship has been regarded as the important factor in the procedure of economic growing and development, as the economic growing and development occurs the conditions prefering entrepreneurship besides improves. It is non possible to hold d evelopment without growing, hence neglecting to understand entrepreneurship is neglecting to acknowledge the policies of turning economic system. Nelson and Winter ( 1982 )[ 9 ]and Winter ( 1984 )[ 10 ]suggested that more diverseness would be generated under the â€Å" entrepreneurial government than the routinized government, Under the routinized technological government invention will be given to be less diverse and in contrast under the entrepreneurial government invention is characterized by more diverseness. † Therefore in decision opportunities of new endeavors to be started should be associated with greater grade of diverseness. Economic growing and entrepreneurship are likely to boom in favourable economic conditions, if the economic conditions are favourable so given the maximal use of an thought, entrepreneurship will emerge and ensue will be the economic development. On the contrary if the conditions are non favourable entrepreneurship will non lift thereby stagnating the economic system. Entrepreneurship is a dependent entity ; it acts as the accelerator supplying flicker for the economic growing. Entrepreneurship has become a critical policy issue particularly for the developing economic systems as, foremost as it helps in making self employment which provides flexibleness and productiveness to the economic system. Second the rise of advanced entrepreneurship is a tool to stay competitory and for other occupation creative activities. Capital which entrepreneurs generates exerts an upward influence through increased competition via increased figure of houses, non merely more figure of houses provide greater competition for new thoughts instead facilitates opening of new concerns with different thoughts thereby increasing the growing and development of the economic system. Therefore this in a manner indicates parts with high sum of entrepreneurial activity are likely to hold broad concern diverseness which consequences in higher rates of economic growing. In a development or a developed economic system opportunities of new endeavors to be started should be associated with greater grade of diverseness.Entrepreneurship and its relation with EngineeringAs enterprisers fill the nothingness between proficient progresss and economic sciences so hence for human sort to derive benefits from technology developments, enterprisers must acknowledge the value of economic sciences in the technological promotion and assist create concern ventures for social-economic stableness. Technology is of import, one manner to construct a concern around capablenesss that others can non copy, but itself engineering remains uncomplete, so an enterpriser ‘s chief occupation is to happen the concern value that engineering can make and happen a way to change over that into a concern. So understanding of the two can non be ignored. Sony Walkman was the portable tape participant which came in to being after the technology expertness to the full understood the related proficient issues, one time this merchandise was available tonss of other houses took this chance to make full the spreads in this emerging market with their ain participants or to widen this thought from tape recording equipment to cd participant. Hence a small technological promotion with entrepreneurial accomplishments can be seen to play a specific function in the economic stableness.Biblography

Passionate About Art essays

Passionate About Art essays As a young girl, I doodled on every empty spot on whatever paper I could get my hands on. While the sport of volleyball is my cup of tea, drawing and painting are, as they have always been, my passion. As an elementary school student, I cherished every moment of art class, even if I found the demands of my art teachers too stifling. Art teachers always dictated both the subject and medium of every art project instead of giving free reign to our artistic talents. Fortunately, my love of art compelled me to pursue my talents outside the classroom, i.e. in the privacy of my room that I fondly called my studio. Art has been, and continues to be, the main outlet for my feelings. When Im depressed, melancholy expressions overwhelm my paintings. Frustration or rage is highlighted by shades of red or bright orange. A distorted face done in the cubist style of Picasso shows up in drawings made in times of astronomic bliss, while a more impressionist style comes out when I am particularly pensive. Sometimes, inspired by Sigmar Polke, a German painter of the popular art movement, I venture into provocative drawings too. Lichtenstein and Warhol have also served as inspirations as their paintings are sexy and unpretentious. When I draw, I sometimes add wit and satire, which I believe makes the drawing more interesting to analyze. More importantly, I enjoy art because it generates powerful messages or sentiments. When Mona Lisa smiles, she captivates people of all races. I once saw this painting of Norman Rockwell which portrayed a racial conflict and still remember how bothered I was for one whole evening. Rodins The Kiss makes me shudder with passion, while Van Goghs Starry Starry Night gives me a sense of confusion and turmoil. Indeed, as we view works of the masters, we cant help but wonder what they were feeling at the time they were creating these gems. ...

President John F. Kennedy Gives Man on the Moon Speech

President John F. Kennedy Gives Man on the Moon Speech President John F. Kennedy delivered this speech, Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs, on May 25, 1961 before a joint session of Congress. In this speech, JFK stated that the United States should set as a goal the landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth by the end of the decade. Acknowledging that the Soviets had a head start in their space program, Kennedy urged the U.S. to work diligently to lead the achievements of space travel because in many ways [it] may hold the key to our future on earth. Full Text of the Man on the Moon Speech Given By President John F. Kennedy Mr. Speaker, Mr. Vice President, my copartners in Government, gentlemen-and ladies: The Constitution imposes upon me the obligation to from time to time give to the Congress information of the State of the Union. While this has traditionally been interpreted as an annual affair, this tradition has been broken in extraordinary times. These are extraordinary times. And we face an extraordinary challenge. Our strength as well as our convictions have imposed upon this nation the role of leader in freedoms cause. No role in history could be more difficult or more important. We stand for freedom. That is our conviction for ourselvesthat is our only commitment to others. No friend, no neutral and no adversary should think otherwise. We are not against any manor any nationor any systemexcept as it is hostile to freedom. Nor am I here to present a new military doctrine, bearing any one name or aimed at any one area. I am here to promote the freedom doctrine. I. THE GLOBAL STAGE The great battleground for the defense and expansion of freedom today is the whole southern half of the globeAsia, Latin America, Africa and the Middle Eastthe lands of the rising peoples. Their revolution is the greatest in human history. They seek an end to injustice, tyranny, and exploitation. More than an end, they seek a beginning. And theirs is a revolution which we would support regardless of the Cold War, and regardless of which political or economic route they should choose to freedom. For the adversaries of freedom did not create the revolution; nor did they create the conditions which compel it. But they are seeking to ride the crest of its waveto capture it for themselves. Yet their aggression is more often concealed than open. They have fired no missiles; and their troops are seldom seen. They send arms, agitators, aid, technicians and propaganda to every troubled area. But where fighting is required, it is usually done by othersby guerrillas striking at night, by assassins striking aloneassassins who have taken the lives of four thousand civil officers in the last twelve months in Vietnam aloneby subversives and saboteurs and insurrectionists, who in some cases control whole areas inside of independent nations. [At this point the following paragraph, which appears in the text as signed and transmitted to the Senate and House of Representatives, was omitted in the reading of the message: They possess a powerful intercontinental striking force, large forces for conventional war, a well-trained underground in nearly every country, the power to conscript talent and manpower for any purpose, the capacity for quick decisions, a closed society without dissent or free information, and long experience in the techniques of violence and subversion. They make the most of their scientific successes, their economic progress and their pose as a foe of colonialism and friend of popular revolution. They prey on unstable or unpopular governments, unsealed, or unknown boundaries, unfilled hopes, convulsive change, massive poverty, illiteracy, unrest and frustration.] With these formidable weapons, the adversaries of freedom plan to consolidate their territoryto exploit, to control, and finally to destroy the hopes of the worlds newest nations; and they have ambition to do it before the end of this decade. It is a contest of will and purpose as well as force and violencea battle for minds and souls as well as lives and territory. And in that contest, we cannot stand aside. We stand, as we have always stood from our earliest beginnings, for the independence and equality of all nations. This nation was born of revolution and raised in freedom. And we do not intend to leave an open road for despotism. There is no single simple policy which meets this challenge. Experience has taught us that no one nation has the power or the wisdom to solve all the problems of the world or manage its revolutionary tidesthat extending our commitments does not always increase our securitythat any initiative carries with it the risk of a temporary defeatthat nuclear weapons cannot prevent subversionthat no free people can be kept free without will and energy of their ownand that no two nations or situations are exactly alike. Yet there is much we can doand must do. The proposals I bring before you are numerous and varied. They arise from the host of special opportunities and dangers which have become increasingly clear in recent months. Taken together, I believe that they can mark another step forward in our effort as a people. I am here to ask the help of this Congress and the nation in approving these necessary measures. II. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROGRESS AT HOME The first and basic task confronting this nation this year was to turn recession into recovery. An affirmative anti-recession program, initiated with your cooperation, supported the natural forces in the private sector; and our economy is now enjoying renewed confidence and energy. The recession has been halted. Recovery is under way. But the task of abating unemployment and achieving a full use of our resources does remain a serious challenge for us all. Large-scale unemployment during a recession is bad enough, but large-scale unemployment during a period of prosperity would be intolerable. I am therefore transmitting to the Congress a new Manpower Development and Training program, to train or retrain several hundred thousand workers, particularly in those areas where we have seen chronic unemployment as a result of technological factors in new occupational skills over a four-year period, in order to replace those skills made obsolete by automation and industrial change with the new skills which the new processes demand. It should be a satisfaction to us all that we have made great strides in restoring world confidence in the dollar, halting the outflow of gold and improving our balance of payments. During the last two months, our gold stocks actually increased by seventeen million dollars, compared to a loss of 635 million dollars during the last two months of 1960. We must maintain this progressand this will require the cooperation and restraint of everyone. As recovery progresses, there will be temptations to seek unjustified price and wage increases. These we cannot afford. They will only handicap our efforts to compete abroad and to achieve full recovery here at home. Labor and management mustand I am confident that they willpursue responsible wage and price policies in these critical times. I look to the Presidents Advisory Committee on  Labor Management  Policy to give a strong lead in this direction. Moreover, if the  budget deficit  now increased by the needs of our security is to be held within manageable proportions, it will be necessary to hold tightly to prudent fiscal standards; and I request the cooperation of the Congress in this regardto refrain from adding funds or programs, desirable as they may be, to the Budgetto end the postal deficit, as my predecessor also recommended, through increased ratesa deficit incidentally, this year, which exceeds the fiscal 1962 cost of all the space and defense measures that I am submitting todayto provide full pay-as-you-go highway financingand to close those tax loopholes earlier specified. Our security and progress cannot be cheaply purchased; and their price must be found in what we all forego as well as what we all must pay. III. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROGRESS ABROAD I stress the strength of our economy because it is essential to the strength of our nation. And what is true in our case is true in the case of other countries. Their strength in the struggle for freedom depends on the strength of their economic and their social progress. We would be badly mistaken to consider their problems in military terms alone. For no amount of arms and armies can help stabilize those governments which are unable or unwilling to achieve social and economic reform and development. Military pacts cannot help nations whose social injustice and economic chaos invite insurgency and penetration and subversion. The most skillful counter-guerrilla efforts cannot succeed where the local population is too caught up in its own misery to be concerned about the advance of communism. But for those who share this view, we stand ready now, as we have in the past, to provide generously of our skills, and our capital, and our food to assist the peoples of the less-developed nations to reach their goals in freedomto help them before they are engulfed in crisis. This is also our great opportunity in 1961. If we grasp it, then subversion to prevent its success is exposed as an unjustifiable attempt to keep these nations from either being free or equal. But if we do not pursue it, and if they do not pursue it, the bankruptcy of unstable governments, one by one, and of unfilled hopes will surely lead to a series of totalitarian receiverships. Earlier in the year, I outlined to the Congress a new program for aiding emerging nations; and it is my intention to transmit shortly draft legislation to implement this program, to establish a new Act for International Development, and to add to the figures previously requested, in view of the swift pace of critical events, an additional 250 million dollars for a Presidential Contingency Fund, to be used only upon a Presidential determination in each case, with regular and complete reports to the Congress in each case, when there is a sudden and extraordinary drain upon our regular funds which we cannot foreseeas illustrated by recent events in Southeast Asiaand it makes necessary the use of this emergency reserve. The total amount requestednow raised to 2.65 billion dollarsis both minimal and crucial. I do not see how anyone who is concernedas we all areabout the growing threats to freedom around the globeand who is asking what more we can do as a peoplecan weaken or oppose the sin gle most important program available for building the frontiers of freedom. IV. TOOLS FOR A GLOBAL STRUGGLE All that I have said makes it clear that we are engaged in a world-wide struggle in which we bear a heavy burden to preserve and promote the ideals that we share with all mankind, or have alien ideals forced upon them. That struggle has highlighted the role of our Information Agency. It is essential that the funds previously requested for this effort be not only approved in full but increased by 2 million, 400 thousand dollars, to a total of 121 million dollars. This new request is for additional radio and television to Latin America and Southeast Asia. These tools are particularly effective and essential in the cities and villages of those great continents as a means of reaching millions of uncertain peoples to tell them of our interest in their fight for freedom. In Latin America, we are proposing to increase our Spanish and Portuguese broadcasts to a total of 154 hours a week, compared to 42 hours today, none of which is in Portuguese, the language of about one-third of the people of South America. The Soviets, Red Chinese and satellites already broadcast into Latin America more than 134 hours a week in Spanish and Portuguese. Communist China alone does more public information broadcasting in our own hemisphere than we do. Moreover, powerful propaganda broadcasts from Havana now are heard throughout Latin America, encouraging new revolutions in several countries. Similarly, in Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand, we must communicate our determination and support to those upon whom our hopes for resisting the communist tide in that continent ultimately depend. Our interest is in the truth. V. OUR PARTNERSHIP FOR SELF-DEFENSE But while we talk of sharing and building and the competition of ideas, others talk of arms and threaten war. So we have learned to keep our defenses strongand to cooperate with others in a partnership of self-defense. The events of recent weeks have caused us to look anew at these efforts. The center of freedoms defense is our network of world alliances, extending from NATO, recommended by a  Democratic President  and approved by a Republican Congress, to SEATO, recommended by a  Republican President  and approved by a Democratic Congress. These alliances were constructed in the 1940s and 1950sit is our task and responsibility in the 1960s to strengthen them. To meet the changing conditions of powerand power relationships have changedwe have endorsed an increased emphasis on NATOs conventional strength. At the same time we are affirming our conviction that the NATO nuclear deterrent must also be kept strong. I have made clear our intention to commit to the NATO command, for this purpose, the 5 Polaris submarines originally suggested by  President Eisenhower, with the possibility, if needed, of more to come. Second, a major part of our partnership for self-defense is the Military Assistance Program. The main burden of local defense against local attack, subversion, insurrection or guerrilla warfare must of necessity rest with local forces. Where these forces have the necessary will and capacity to cope with such threats, our intervention is rarely necessary or helpful. Where the will is present and only capacity is lacking, our Military Assistance Program can be of help. But this program, like economic assistance, needs a new emphasis. It cannot be extended without regard to the social, political and military reforms essential to internal respect and stability. The equipment and training provided must be tailored to legitimate local needs and to our own foreign and military policies, not to our supply of military stocks or a local leaders desire for military display. And military assistance can, in addition to its military purposes, make a contribution to economic progress, as do our own Army Engineers. In an earlier message, I requested 1.6 billion dollars for Military Assistance, stating that this would maintain existing force levels, but that I could not foresee how much more might be required. It is now clear that this is not enough. The present crisis in Southeast Asia, on which the  Vice President  has made a valuable reportthe rising threat of communism in  Latin Americathe increased arms traffic in Africaand all the new pressures on every nation found on the map by tracing your fingers along the borders of the Communist bloc in Asia and the Middle Eastall make clear the dimension of our needs. I therefore request the Congress to provide a total of 1.885 billion dollars for Military Assistance in the coming fiscal yearan amount less than that requested a year agobut a minimum which must be assured if we are to help those nations make secure their independence. This must be prudently and wisely spentand that will be our common endeavor. Military and economic assistance has been a heavy burden on our citizens for a long time, and I recognize the strong pressures against it; but this battle is far from over, it is reaching a crucial stage, and I believe we should participate in it. We cannot merely state our opposition to totalitarian advance without paying the price of helping those now under the greatest pressure. VI. OUR OWN MILITARY AND INTELLIGENCE SHIELD In line with these developments, I have directed a further reinforcement of our own capacity to deter or resist non-nuclear aggression. In the conventional field, with one exception, I find no present need for large new levies of men. What is needed is rather a change of position to give us still further increases in flexibility. Therefore, I am directing the Secretary of Defense to undertake a reorganization and modernization of the Armys divisional structure, to increase its non-nuclear firepower, to improve its tactical mobility in any environment, to insure its flexibility to meet any direct or indirect threat, to facilitate its coordination with our major allies, and to provide more modern mechanized divisions in Europe and bring their equipment up to date, and new airborne brigades in both the Pacific and Europe. And secondly, I am asking the Congress for an additional 100 million dollars to begin the procurement task necessary to re-equip this new Army structure with the most modern material. New helicopters, new armored personnel carriers, and new howitzers, for example, must be obtained now. Third, I am directing the Secretary of Defense to expand rapidly and substantially, in cooperation with our Allies, the orientation of existing forces for the conduct of non-nuclear war, paramilitary operations and sub-limited or unconventional wars. In addition our special forces and unconventional warfare units will be increased and reoriented. Throughout the services new emphasis must be placed on the special skills and languages which are required to work with local populations. Fourth, the Army is developing plans to make possible a much more rapid deployment of a major portion of its highly trained reserve forces. When these plans are completed and the reserve is strengthened, two combat-equipped divisions, plus their supporting forces, a total of 89,000 men, could be ready in an emergency for operations with but 3 weeks notice2 more divisions with but 5 weeks noticeand six additional divisions and their supporting forces, making a total of 10 divisions, could be deployable with less than 8 weeks notice. In short, these new plans will allow us to almost double the combat power of the Army in less than two months, compared to the nearly nine months heretofore required. Fifth, to enhance the already formidable ability of the Marine Corps to respond to limited war emergencies, I am asking the Congress for 60 million dollars to increase the Marine Corps strength to 190,000 men. This will increase the initial impact and staying power of our three Marine divisions and three air wings, and provide a trained nucleus for further expansion, if necessary for self-defense. Finally, to cite one other area of activities that are both legitimate and necessary as a means of self-defense in an age of hidden perils, our whole intelligence effort must be reviewed, and its coordination with other elements of policy assured. The Congress and the American people are entitled to know that we will institute whatever new organization, policies, and control are necessary. VII. CIVIL DEFENSE One major element of the  national security program  which this nation has never squarely faced up to is civil defense. This problem arises not from present trends but from national inaction in which most of us have participated. In the past decade we have intermittently considered a variety of programs, but we have never adopted a consistent policy. Public considerations have been largely characterized by apathy, indifference and skepticism; while, at the same time, many of the civil defense plans have been so far-reaching and unrealistic that they have not gained essential support. This Administration has been looking hard at exactly what civil defense can and cannot do. It cannot be obtained cheaply. It cannot give an assurance of blast protection that will be proof against surprise attack or guaranteed against obsolescence or destruction. And it cannot deter a nuclear attack. We will deter an enemy from making a nuclear attack only if our retaliatory power is so strong and so invulnerable that he knows he would be destroyed by our response. If we have that strength, civil defense is not needed to deter an attack. If we should ever lack it, civil defense would not be an adequate substitute. But this deterrent concept assumes rational calculations by rational men. And the history of this planet, and particularly the history of the 20th century, is sufficient to remind us of the possibilities of an irrational attack, a miscalculation, an accidental war, [or a war of escalation in which the stakes by each side gradually increase to the point of maximum danger] which cannot be either foreseen or deterred. It is on this basis that civil defense can be readily justifiableas insurance for the civilian population in case of an enemy miscalculation. It is insurance we trust will never be neededbut insurance which we could never forgive ourselves for foregoing in the event of catastrophe. Once the validity of this concept is recognized, there is no point in delaying the initiation of a nation-wide long-range program of identifying present fallout shelter capacity and providing shelter in new and existing structures. Such a program would protect millions of people against the hazards of radioactive fallout in the event of large-scale nuclear attack. Effective performance of the entire program not only requires new legislative authority and more funds but also sound organizational arrangements. Therefore, under the authority vested in me by Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1958, I am assigning responsibility for this program to the top civilian authority already responsible for continental defense, the Secretary of Defense. It is important that this function remain civilian, in nature and leadership; and this feature will not be changed. The Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization will be reconstituted as a small staff agency to assist in the coordination of these functions. To more accurately describe its role, its title should be changed to the Office of Emergency Planning. As soon as those newly charged with these responsibilities have prepared new authorization and appropriation requests, such requests will be transmitted to the Congress for a much-strengthened Federal-State civil defense program. Such a program will provide Federal funds for identifying fallout shelter capacity in existing, structures, and it will include, where appropriate, incorporation of shelter in Federal buildings, new requirements for shelter in buildings constructed with  Federal assistance, and matching grants and other incentives for constructing shelter in State and local and private buildings. Federal appropriations for civil defense in fiscal 1962 under this program will in all likelihood be more than triple the pending budget requests; and they will increase sharply in subsequent years. Financial participation will also be required from State and local governments and from private citizens. But no insurance is cost-free; and every American citizen and his community must decide for themselves whether this form of survival insurance justifies the expenditure of effort, time and money. For myself, I am convinced that it does. VIII. DISARMAMENT I cannot end this discussion of defense and armaments without emphasizing our strongest hope: the creation of an orderly world where disarmament will be possible. Our aims do not prepare for warthey are efforts to discourage and resist the adventures of others that could end in war. That is why it is consistent with these efforts that we continue to press for properly safeguarded disarmament measures. At Geneva, in cooperation with the United Kingdom, we have put forward concrete proposals to make clear our wish to meet the Soviets half way in an effective nuclear test ban treatythe first significant but essential step on the road towards disarmament. Up to now, their response has not been what we hoped, but Mr. Dean returned last night to Geneva, and we intend to go the last mile in patience to secure this gain if we can.

A Guide to Vertical Lists

A Guide to Vertical Lists A Guide to Vertical Lists A Guide to Vertical Lists By Mark Nichol A recent post described how to organize and format in-line lists, those that occur within a sentence. This one explains the proper use of vertical lists, which are organized by setting the items on the list (following an introductory phrase or sentence), apart from each other, distinguished by numbers, letters, or other symbols, on consecutive lines. Vertical lists are best employed in place of in-line lists when the list is long and/or the items consist of longer phrases or even complete sentences (or even more than one sentence). However, vertical lists are often useful in contexts in which guidance or instruction is being offered, though they are most effective when they are concise, and extended list items are not advised. If list items consist of more than one sentence, the information might be better displayed as regular text. The following vertical list (too simple to be formatted as such but used here for illustrative purposes), is offered as a basic example: The colors of the American flag are red, white, and blue. (Note: This and other correct lists in this post are formatted in boldface.) Just as is the case with an in-line list, if one or more items in a vertical list itself requires a comma, each item should be set off from the others by a semicolon. Note that despite the vertical-list formatting, because the introductory phrase and the list constitute a syntactically organized sentence, the introductory phrase is not punctuated, but terminal punctuation follows the final item. (Some publishers, however, simplify this format by omitting especially the conjunction and perhaps the commas as well.) However, compare the previous example with a version in which the introductory phrase constitutes a complete independent clause: The colors of the American flag are as follows: red white blue Here, the introductory phrase and the list do not constitute a sentence, so the list items are not punctuated. Terminal punctuation is included, however, and first word of each list item is capitalized, if the items are themselves self-contained sentences: Although the colors of the American flag did not have any official meaning when it was designed, the colors on the Great Seal represent the following virtues: White signifies purity and innocence. Red signifies hardiness and valor. Blue signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice. Note how the sentences in the list are organized consistently. In the following examples, the list items must be revised to make the list syntactically consistent: According to our survey, the top three factors are lax enforcement of budgets and savings being spent in other areas, invalid savings assumptions or changes in the assumptions used to calculate savings, and realized savings are not being effectively tracked. Note how the first two items follow the syntactical structure of the introductory phrase but the third one is an independent clause. The list can be rendered consistent in two ways: According to our survey, the top three factors are lax enforcement of budgets and savings being spent in other areas, invalid savings assumptions or changes in the assumptions used to calculate savings, and ineffective tracking of realized savings. According to our survey, these are the top three factors: Budget enforcement is lax and savings are being spent in other areas. Savings assumptions are invalid or there are changes in the assumptions used to calculate savings. Realized savings are not being effectively tracked. Avoid producing vertical lists in which to or more list items begin with the same word or words, as in this example: In this session, you will learn how to get business processes and systems to scale to business growth, how to build out a financial team to drive and support growth, how to build these important pillars within an audit/business controls mind-set, and securing/managing financing to support corporate growth strategy. To revise, incorporate the recurring word or phrase into the introductory phrase and revise any list items that begin with different wording so that they conform with the others, as shown here: In this session, you will learn how to get business processes and systems to scale to business growth, build out a financial team to drive and support growth, build these important pillars within an audit/business controls mind-set, and secure/manage financing to support corporate growth strategy. Note, too, that any symbol may be used in place of bullets, but the same symbol should be employed throughout not only a single vertical list but also all such lists throughout a document or publication. If one or more items in a vertical list marked by bullets are followed by subsidiary items of their own, a distinct symbol (such as a hollow bullet) should be used for those items, which should also be indented farther than the primary list items. Sometimes, no symbols are used at all, but this strategy is best employed if the items are brief and numerous, such as in a vocabulary list consisting of one- or two-word items. (In addition, a vertical list in which items are short can be formatted into two or more narrow columns if the width of the printed or online page is wide enough to accommodate them.) Also, numbers and letters may be substituted for bullets, but numbers are recommended only when the items in the list should be read in a particular order, such as when outlining a procedure or ranking the list items. Letters are appropriate primarily for multiple-choice test items, for example, or when the text includes frequent cross-references such as â€Å"See item d.† A basic outline-style vertical list can be organized using a simple hierarchy of Arabic numerals and lowercase letters. For a complex outline, the recommended hierarchy of numbers and letters varies according to various style manuals and writing handbooks, but The Chicago Manual of Style advises the following sequence: Roman numerals (I, II, III, and so on), capital letters (A, B, C, and so on), Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, and so on), lowercase letters (a, b, c, and so on) followed by a close parenthesis, Arabic numerals enclosed in parentheses, lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses, and lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, and so on) followed by a close parenthesis. Another outline format is the decimal outline, as shown below (appropriate indentation not used here): 1. 1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.2 1.2.1 . . . 1.3 1.3.1 . . . 2. 2.1 . . . Ultimately, the goal of any list organization is clarity. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Yiddish Handbook: 40 Words You Should Know8 Proofreading Tips And Techniques"Wracking" or "Racking" Your Brain?

Pick one of three topics about Modern Europe history Essay

Pick one of three topics about Modern Europe history - Essay Example The French revolution took place within the period 1789 and 1799 in Europe history and is the most active politically and socially with upheavals. The participants majorly included country liberals and radicals with a common agenda to take the country to the next governance stage (Voices from the battle of the Somme, 1990). In my view, the events shaped the history of Europe positively and brought into the minds of many people demand democracies and republican as opposed to theocracies and absolute monarchies. The revolution was full of warlike activities and global conflicts, which stretched the Caribbean towards the Middle East. It marked an imperative change phase for the entire Europe continent (sieyes, 1998). The unity among citizens of a nation and the spirit to fight for a country was evident in the Napoleonic war where Emperor Napoleon in the French empire led to marked series of coveted conflicts against many powers and coalitions in the continent Europe. The European armies were the immediate reformed agents from the war. The use of mass conscription was the major idea adopted across the Europe nation played by the Napoleon armies. It strengthened the governance of French across most Europe nations. It is recorded that out of a total more than 50 battles; Napoleon only lost less than 10 battles (Walter, 1992). Other leaders have regarded the determination in the mind of the ruler as paramount in many nations when they rely upon military defense. Marking the end of the rule was the waterloo defeat. Arms and battles do not safeguard countries in my view better yet the events under the rule helped to strengthen belief and attachment to their countries by fighting for it. The unification of Italy and Germany was probably the foundation of modern nationalism. The year 1848 was a rest from the upheavals that swept across Europe where the liberals and nationalists who participated in the events took a new turn by

Destination marketing strategy- patagonia Essay

Destination marketing strategy- patagonia - Essay Example in the previous assignment, however the hard adventure segment has shown promising growth over the past 5 years in a global perspective (Adventure Travel Trade Association, 2013). This makes Patagonia a lucrative business proposition for tourism companies. The customers who are considered as the hard adventurers are mostly looking for challenging tours in places with hostile environment. Such people will strong appetite for adventures will get strongly attracted to Patagonia, owing to its extremely cold environment (U.S. Commercial Service, 2012). Despite of the strong potential of Patagonia as a destination place, there are significant issues with the location. The TWOS matrix conducted in the assignment presentation clearly indicates towards the issues with the health and safety concerns owing to the poor regulations. Moreover, in Patagonia high quality accommodation cannot be expected and at the same time language problem is always a problem. However, while targeting at the hard adventurers, these issues may not pose as drastic challenges as it might to the soft adventurers. This is mostly because the hard adventurers more attracted towards challenging situations. Thus it can be stated that Patagonia can be a potential tourist destination for hard adventurers. This section focuses on the strategies that are appropriate for attracting the target customers. The target customers selected for the Patagonia tourism are the hard adventurers. Before designing any strategies for attracting the target customers, it is imperative to have detailed discussion regarding the behavioural and psychological aspects of the customers (World Tourism Organization, 2007). The global tourism can be divided in to two definite segments, one is for the soft adventurers and the other is for the hard adventurers. The soft adventurers include average tourist who are enthusiastic to see new places and gain new experiences about a particular region and its culture. These individuals usually